The Geology and Geophysics program prepares students for the application of scientific principles and methods to understand Earth and Life as a system on a regional and planetary scale. Teaching and research cover subjects ranging from the history of Earth and life upon it to present day environmental processes, integrating the behavior of Earth's deep interior, tectonic plates, oceans, atmosphere, land surface, natural resources, and biota. The emphasis of the curriculum is on developing and employing basic principles that combine the core sciences (physics, chemistry, biology) to understand Earth's past and present, and address issues relating to its future. Students will gain a broad background in the natural sciences while focusing on planetary or environmental phenomena of particular interest by choosing a specific track. All tracks emphasize hands-on research experience in field work, in laboratories, or in computer modeling. While some majors continue on to research, consulting, or industrial careers in earth and planetary sciences, the broad scientific training prepares students for a wide variety of other paths including medicine, law, public policy, and teaching.

B.S. degree program. Majors in the B.S. program chose from four tracks: the atmosphere and ocean track, the environmental geoscience track, the paleontology and geobiology track, and the solid earth sciences track. The tracks are suggested pathways to professional careers and major areas of research in geology and geophysics. Students may change tracks during their course of study with guidance from the director of undergraduate studies.

1. The atmosphere and ocean track. This track provides a comprehensive understanding of the theory, observation, and prediction of the atmosphere-ocean-climate system.  Topics range from past changes, including the ice ages, to present-day storms and weather, to forecasting climate change and global warming. The prerequisites are college-level chemistry (CHEM 113, 114, or 118a) and physics (PHYS 180a, 181b and PHYS 165La, 166Lb), computing (ENAS 130b or equivalent), and mathematics through differential equations (ENAS 194a or b). The major requirements consist of 10.5 courses beyond the prerequisites, including either the senior essay or the senior thesis. Students take one 100 level course or freshman seminar as an introduction to Earth processes (G&G 095b, 100a, 110a, 120b, 125b); a higher-level course in G&G can be substituted with DUS permission. The 5.5 core courses introduce students to the Earth’s climate system (G&G 140a and 141La), meteorology (G&G 322a), physical oceanography (G&G 335a), fluid mechanics (MENG 361a), and statistics or linear algebra (STAT 230b or 238a; or Math 222a or b).  There are three electives beyond these requirements from a group of courses in the environment, processes that govern the atmosphere, ocean, and land surface, physics, and statistics (G&G 205a, 306b, 323b, 342a, 362b, 401b, 402b, 421b, 460, MENG 211a, 463a, PHYS 301a, 401a, 402b, 410a, 420a, STAT 230b, 238a, 361a). At least one elective from G&G. Substitution of selected upper-level courses in fluid mechanics and atmosphere/ocean processes is permitted with the approval of the director of undergraduate studies.

2. The environmental geosciences track. This track provides a scientific understanding of the natural and anthropogenic processes that shape the earth-atmosphere-biosphere system. It emphasizes comparative studies of past and current earth processes to better inform models of the environment’s future. The prerequisites are broad and flexible and include college-level chemistry (CHEM 113, 114, or 118a) and mathematics through multivariate calculus (MATH 120a or b). Depending on their area of focus, students may choose physics (PHYS 150a, 151b; 180a, 181b; or 200a, 201b) or cellular biology (MCDB 120a) and evolutionary biology (E&EB 122a or G&G 125b). The major requirements consist of 11 courses beyond the prerequisites, including either the senior essay or the senior thesis. Students take two 090-100 level courses in G&G as an introduction to the Earth system (G&G 095b, 100a, 110a, 120b; G&G 125b can be used if the student has selected the physics prerequisites). Four core courses for the track are chosen from the following options focusing on resource use and sustainability (G&G 205a), the microbiology of surface and near-surface environments (G&G 255b), geochemical principles (G&G 301a), environmental chemistry and pollution (G&G 306b or G&G 457a), climate (G&G 322a), and satellite-based image analysis (G&G 362b). Four electives provide a broad approach to scientific study of the environment. Suggestions include G&G 201a, 212b, 220b, 230a, 300b, 304a, 323b, 329a, 333, 335a, 440a, 465a, 467b, CHEM 125, 126L, EVST 440a, E&EB 210a, 220a, 225b, 226Lb. Electives may also be chosen from the core; at least two electives from G&G.

3. The paleontology and geobiology track. This track focuses on the fossil record of life and evolution, geochemical imprints of life, and interactions between life and earth. Included topics range from morphology, function, relationships, and biogeography of the fossils themselves, through the contexts of fossil finds in terms of stratigraphy, sediment geochemistry, paleoecology, paleoclimate, and geomorphology, to analysis of the larger causes of the paleontological, geobiological and evolutionary patterns. Integrative approaches, which link fossil evidence with the physical and chemical evolution of the earth, are emphasized. The prerequisites are college-level biology (MCDB 120a and E&EB 122a) and chemistry (CHEM 113, 114, or 118a), and mathematics through multivariate calculus (MATH 120a or b). The major requirements consist of 11 courses beyond the prerequisites, including either the senior essay or the senior thesis. Students are introduced to the fossil record and evolution with G&G 125b, and take G&G 110a to provide geological and environmental context for the track. The four core courses give students a comprehensive background in sedimentary rocks and fossilization (G&G 230a), the study of evolution (G&G 250a), microbiology in past and present environments (G&G 255b), and statistical data analysis as applied to the life sciences (E&EB 210a). The four electives offer students maximum flexibility in pursuing their interests in the subject. Suggestions include G&G 201a, 212b, 220b, 301a, 315b, 318a, 333, 362b, 370b, 402b, 440a, ANTH 267b, 456a, 464b, CHEM 125, 126L, E&EB 220a, 225b, 226Lb, 240a, 246b, 247Lb, 272b, 273Lb, 315La, 326b, ENVE 371a, EVST 260a, 261Lb, MCDB 200a, 201La, 210a, 250a, 290b, 291Lb, 300a, 301La, 310a. At least one elective from G&G.

4. The solid earth track. This track emphasizes an integrated geological, geochemical, and geophysical approach to the study of processes operating within the Earth and their manifestation on the surface. It covers the structure, dynamics, and kinetics of Earth's interior and their impacts on our environment both in the long term (e.g., the evolution of the land surface) and in the short term (e.g., the causes for natural disasters such as earthquakes and volcanic eruption). Students will acquire a fundamental understanding of the solid earth system, both for the present-day and for its temporal evolution over geologic time scales. The prerequisites are college-level chemistry (CHEM 113, 114, or 118a) and physics (PHYS 150a, 151b; 180a, 181b; or 200a, 201b), and mathematics through multivariate calculus (MATH 120a or b). The major requirements consist of 11 courses beyond the prerequisites, including either the senior essay or the senior thesis. Students take two 090-100 level courses in G&G as an introduction to the Earth system (G&G 095b, 100a, 110a, 120b, 125b). The core of the track consists of four courses that provide a comprehensive understanding of mantle dynamics, earthquakes, and volcanoes (G&G 201a), mountain building (G&G 212b), rocks and minerals (G&G 220b), sedimentary rocks and processes (G&G 230a), and geochemical principles (G&G 301a). Students select four electives in geology, geochemistry, geophysics, or related topics. Suggestions include G&G 205a, 280b, 319a, 326b, 333, 370b, 342a, 450b, 456, 460, CENG 300a, CHEM 332, ENAS 130b, 194a or b, MATH 222a or b, MENG 211a, 280a, 285a, 315b, 361a, PHYS 301a, 401a, 402b, 410a, 420a, 430b, STAT 230b, 238a, 361a. Electives may also be chosen from the core; at least two electives from G&G. 

B.A. degree program.  The B.A. degree in Geology and Natural Resources requires fewer upper-level courses than the B.S. degree.  It may be more appropriate for students who wish to major in two separate Yale programs, who study geoscience in preparation for a career in law, business, or government, or who resolve on a science major only after the freshman year.  The prerequisites include mathematics (MATH 115a or b), biology (MCDB 120a or G&G 255b), and chemistry (CHEM 103b, 113, 114, or 118a).  The major requirements consist of nine courses beyond the prerequisites.  These nine include two courses in G&G numbered 090-150; courses in natural resources (G&G 205a) and geochemistry (G&G 301a); and five additional courses at the 200 level or higher in Geology and Geophysics or Environmental Engineering, including either the senior essay or the senior thesis.  Course selections can be guided by any of the B.S. tracks described above.

Senior requirement.  Seniors in both degree programs prepare either a senior essay based on one term of library, laboratory, or field research (G&G 492a or b) or, with the consent of the faculty, a two-term senior thesis (G&G 490), which involves innovative field, laboratory, or theoretical research.  Students electing to do a senior thesis must first select a topic and obtain the consent of a faculty member to act as an adviser.  They must then petition the faculty through the director of undergraduate studies for approval of the thesis proposal.  The petition should be submitted by the end of the junior year.  If the two-term senior thesis is elected, the second term of G&G 490 may count as an elective toward the major.  A copy of each senior thesis or senior essay is deposited in the archives of the Geology and Geophysics Library.

Practical experience.  In addition to prerequisites and required courses in Geology and Geophysics, candidates for the B.A. and B.S. degrees are strongly encouraged to gain practical experience in the earth sciences.  This can be done in two ways:  (1) by attending a summer field course elsewhere, or (2) by participating in summer research opportunities offered by the Department of Geology and Geophysics, by other academic institutions, or by certain government agencies and private industries.  Consult the director of undergraduate studies for further information.